Crash Review - 2551 Words

Crash (2004) Paragraph 1: Crash tells the story of people from wildly disparate walks of life as they collide and intersect with one another. Each life is in some way personally affected, changed, damaged, or victimized by racism. They’re also all in some way guilty of racism themselves. via interlocking stories, the cultural, racial, and spiritual isolation of Los Angelinos. Due to the sprawling citys decentralized, car-reliant layout, Haggiss characters have become sheltered from those not in their own socio-economic sphere, and this seclusion has led to virulent narrow-mindedness. Rick Cabot (Brendan Fraser) is the white District Attorney of Los Angeles who participates in racial politics in order to further his career. Rick and his†¦show more content†¦That brother is eventually revealed to be Peter, the hitchhiker who is killed by Officer Hansen. Grahams detachment from his mother culminates when his mother, having learned of Petes death, blames Graham as the reason behind his brothers murder. It is shown that she has always favored the younger brother. This fact exasperates Graham at the end when his mother claims Pete came home and brought groceries for her, when in reality, it was Graham that took the time to restock her previously desolate food supply. Ria (Jennifer Esposito) is a Latina detective, as well as Grahams partner and girlfriend. When a phone call from Grahams mother interrupts his sexual romp with Ria, she becomes upset with Graham for being disrespectful to his mother and his subsequently racially insensitive remark towards Hispanics after implying she was a Mexican, which she was in fact Puerto Rican and Salvadorean. She is shown to be racist toward Asians, as she criticizes an Asian womans driving. Officer Tommy Hansen (Ryan Phillippe) is a Los Angeles police officer who, after observing his partner Officer John Ryan pull over Cameron Thayer and Christine Thayer and sexually molest Christine, requests a change of partner because of feelings of guilt over the incident. His supervisor, Lieutenant Dixon, tells him he will transfer him if he claims hisShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Great Crash 1929 Book Review1602 Words   |  7 PagesGalbraith uses the concept of speculation as a major theme in his book The Great Crash 1929. Galbraith’s portrayal of the market before the crash focuses largely on massive speculation of overvalued stocks which were inevitably going to topple and take the wealth of the shareholders down with it. After all, the prices could not continue to go up forever. Widespread speculation was no doubt a major player in the crash, but many other factors were in play as well. While the speculation argument hasRead MoreReview on the Movie Crash1022 Words   |   5 PagesFILM SYNOPSIS: In Crash, a simple car accident forms an uncompromising foundation for the complex discovery of race and prejudice. Paul Haggis overwhelming and incredibly thought provoking directorial debut succeeds in bringing to the forefront the behaviours that many people keep under their skin. And by thrusting these attitudes toward us with a highly deliberate, reckless abandon, Haggis puts racism on the highest pedestal for our review. There is no better place for this examination than theRead MoreReview on the Movie Crash1033 Words   |  5 PagesFILM SYNOPSIS: In Crash, a simple car accident forms an uncompromising foundation for the complex discovery of race and prejudice. Paul Haggis overwhelming and incredibly thought provoking directorial debut succeeds in bringing to the forefront the behaviours that many people keep under their skin. And by thrusting these attitudes toward us with a highly deliberate, reckless abandon, Haggis puts racism on the highest pedestal for our review. There is no better place for this examination thanRead MoreCrash Movie Review1215 Words   |  5 Pagesmaking an opinion about a person. The movie Crash shows the authenticity of how people negatively stereotype each other’s race and ethnicity. It also shows how people are racist towards each other because of their different race. Stereotypes and mistrust are considered to be barriers that inhibit interracial relationships among people. Crash is a movie that shows acts about racism and stereotypes within the United States. The first scene is the car crash involving Ria, Jennifer Esposito, and an AsianRead MoreCrash: A Movie Review Essay3090 Words   |  13 PagesMost people are born with good hearts, but as they grow up they learn prejudices. â€Å"Crash† is a movie that brings out bigotry and racial stereotypes. The movie is set in Los Angeles, a city with a cultural mix of every nationality. The story begins when several people are involved in a multi-car accident. Several stories interweave during two days in Los Angeles involving a collection of inter-related characters, a police detective with a drugged out mother and a mischief younger brother, two carRead MoreFilm Review : The Movie Crash 1757 Words   |  8 Pageshas to do is put shots together†. Is that really all it is? Not even close. In my opinion, without editing, viewers would miss so many important factors that the director and film e ditor want us to capture in certain scenes or shots. In Paul Haggis’ Crash (2004), there are many intense scenes that use editing, mainly cuts -which is when the camera is focused on one character or sequence, and then changes focus to something else in the blink of an eye- to make the scene flow or to help us notice importantRead MoreReview Of A Crash Course On Cultural Issues 872 Words   |  4 PagesA â€Å"Crash† Course on Cultural Issues Summary: The movie is set in Los Angeles, a city with a cultural mix of every nationality. The story begins when several people are involved in a car accident. You learn rather quickly that there are many connected stories about race, class, family and gender. We are then taken back to the day before the crash, seeing the lives of several different characters, and the problems each encounters during that day. Some of the characters include a racist LAPD cop namedRead MoreAre You Entitled to File a Personal Injury Claim? Essays717 Words   |  3 Pagesinsurance logs and other relevant documentation to hand before contacting us about your personal injury compensation claim. If you are considering trying to claim compensation for a road traffic accident (however major or minor) you will need to review the details of the event carefully. Although road traffic law contains many nuances, a good generalisation is that if you are found to have suffered a collision (or other personal or property damage) due to the reasonably avoidable negligence of anotherRead MoreThe Movie Crash Essay1031 Words   |  5 PagesWriter-director Paul Haggis Movie â€Å"Crash† written in 2004, tells an interconnecting story of what Whites, Blacks, Latinos, Iranians, cops and criminals. Regardless of their Social Economic Academic or Political background, they are all defined in one way or another by racism. Crash represents the modern condition as a violent bumper car ride (Variety) which connects stories based on coincidences serendipity, and luck as the lives of the characters crash against one another. The movie presumes thatRead MoreAcute Consumption Of Cannabis And Dr iving Performance1429 Words   |  6 Pagesand non-biased study. The experiment carried out for this report was to find out the association between acute cannabis consumption and motor vehicle collision risk .The method of research method used for the experiment was systematic review approach. In this method, the researchers include a comprehensive search, transparent study selection and data extraction, risk of bias assessment, and synthesis of sufficiently similar data. (Asbridge, Hayden, Cartwright, 2012) . The research was

The Theory Of Career Counseling - 1072 Words

Ohler and Levinson (2012) states that John Holland’s theory is the most widely used, respected, and researched theory of career counseling (pg. 148). With research providing a foundation of effectiveness and usefulness, Holland’s theory provides a positive framework for assisting clients achieve career and occupational satisfaction. Holland notes various personality types providing one with insight into their interest, traits, and factors that ultimately lead to career happiness. The six personality types previously identified as realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional have specific descriptions detailing areas of interest as it relates to the type. Ohler and Levinson (2012) explains how the realistic personality type enjoys working with machines, tools, and animals (pg. 148). Also this type values the ability to teach, heal, and inform others. The realistic type often avoids social activities, ,are practical in their endeavors, and enjoy working with objects. On the other hand, Ohler and Levinson (2012) states that investigative people enjoy mathematics, persuading people, and are scientific and intellectual (pg. 149). This type enjoys searching for solutions and will be prone to enjoy complex and abstract thinking. Sharf (2014) notes that individuals with this type also hold interest working as doctors, biologist, researchers or veterinarians (pg. 132). Ohler and Levinson (2012) notes artistic types as creative, enjoying arts,Show MoreRelatedCareer Counseling Theory Paper1723 Words   |  7 PagesCareer Counseling Theories: Individuals with Substance Use Disorders The words â€Å"career counseling† and â€Å"substance abuse treatment† on the surface appear as two completely isolated areas, with little interconnection. Personally, as an individual in recovery from addiction, as well as professionally, working as a drug and alcohol case manager, experience has shown me that vocation is very relevant to this population. It is one of the primary goal areas in which I work with my clients on a daily basisRead MoreCareer Counseling, And Super s Development Theory1840 Words   |  8 PagesCareer counseling theories are as diverse as the counselors who practice them and the clients who experience them. Understanding and applying the appropriate theory for each unique client is imperative. Many career counselors use a variety of theories and techniques when working with students through their exploration and career commitment process. Career theories I will describe in this piece include, Social Cognitive Career Theory, Solution-Focused Career Counseling, and Super’s Development TheoryRead MoreCareer Development And Counseling : Putting Theory And Research998 Words   |  4 Pagesentering college in which a student may learn and grow in ways they otherwise couldn’t if they were in a college classroom. M. L. Savickas explains this transition further in the book Career Development and Counseling: Putting Theory and Research to Work. â€Å"The transition represents an important opportunity to enact career goals, self-beliefs, and identities developed during schooling† (Savickas, 2005 pp. 42–70). Some may have apprehensions when determining if a gap year is beneficial for an individualRead MoreDiversity Issues in Career Counseling Essay755 Words   |  4 PagesDiversity Issues in Career Counseling Abstract This paper will give a brief overview of how bias, assumptions and diversity can impact the career counseling relationship. The impact of values, bias, and the ability to move beyond barriers in the counseling relationship is essential to successful outcomes in working with clients. The rationale for the appropriateness of multicultural counseling competency and the impact of culture in the counseling process will be discussedRead MoreReflection Of Communication And Communication1152 Words   |  5 Pagesresources in our society that will assist people that have served in the way. Certain things like VA hospitals and helping them deal with their past trauma. The fourth resource that I took away from this course is learning about the multiple career counseling theories; this will assist in my communication and helping with my client as it relates to their future goals. The fourth fact that I learned from this course is the importance of self-care and making sure every day you are taking good care of yourselfRead MoreCareer Choices Are A Reflection On An Individual’S Personality1325 Words   |  6 Pages Career choices are a reflection on an individual’s personality type. It is believed to be reinforced and rewarded by the individual’s academic environment. The theorist, I will discuss in this paper is John Holland theory. Holland’s theory provides a framework that is congruent to one’s personality type. Many personalities are influenced by their environment, which in terms dictates the type of career they choose. The primary purpose of Holland’s theory is for individuals to look for opportunitiesRead MoreAn Interview With A Counselor Essay1381 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction Counseling is defined as †the use of therapeutic strategies to help clients address personal concerns and mental health issues† (Nystul, 2016). Pursuing counseling as a career involves many years of formal study and certification or licensure. After receiving licensure to practice as a professional counselors it is a requirement to maintain involvement and certification in certain associations in order to hold your license. These association often require further education and/or professionalRead MoreCareer Analysis : Career Counseling1276 Words   |  6 PagesCareer Counseling Theory It appears that the most appropriate model of career counseling would depend on how much insight the client has, their stage of development, their age and cultural background, and their career and developmental maturity. All of an individuals life experiences, their personal and career goals and aspirations for the present and future will affect their choices regarding career development. There are differing opinions on which factors play the most important role in careerRead MoreJohn Holland Personality Theory Essay901 Words   |  4 PagesPersonality is an influential trait that if utilized for career matching, could potentially increase productivity at a job or even equate to a successful career choice. If an individual’s personality has characteristics of a certain trait, such as creativity or idealism, it would be a good idea to get into a career that emphasizes this trait and maximizes that potential. In career counseling there are many theories that are acceptable for utilization in client-counselor relationships, but one inRead MoreHollands Theory834 Words   |  4 PagesMulticultural Career Counseling Grand Canyon University: PCN-525 August 30, 2013 Cyril Worm Introduction This research paper will summarize â€Å"Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice†; followed by a practical application of the theory to this Author’s life. Other than the textbook for this class; one other resource cited in the reference section was used to make the following concise summation of Holland’s Theory. Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice Holland’s Theory can be

System and Change in Industrial Relations Analysis Free Essays

As a student of industrial relations, I am often bombarded with conflicting theories and reasons for the emergence and importance of this field. Edmond Heery outlines and analyses the justaposition of two different views of modeling this vast and often debated area of industrial relations. His article looks at two types of model building in IR. We will write a custom essay sample on System and Change in Industrial Relations Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now First, the traditional model of systems-thinking set forth by John Dunlop, one of the pioneers of IR theory. Introduced in 1958, Dunlop’s system theory of IR tries to provide tools to understand the widest possible range of IR activities and explains why particular rules are established in particular contexts. Dunlop argues that IR can be studied as an independent field in an industrial society (much like economics). The systems theory makes use of four related elements: Actors- workers and their institutions, management, government institutions; Contexts- technical characteristics of workplace, budgetary constraints, locus and distribution of power in society; Rules- procedural and substantive; Functional ideology- integration, ie. IR regulates conflict by playing by the rules. The relationship between these elements is twofold- not only does the IR context influence the IR actors and the rules they creat, the actors’ shared acceptance of the common idealogy (the IR game played by the rules) helps bind the system as a whole. Heery goes on to outline several criticisms of Dunl op’s rather classic and still widely studied systems theory. A starting criticism of the systems theory is that it views IR as an independent field with an inherent theory. Critics want to push back this boundary and argue that IR was and is deeply connected with and determined by economics, politics, social, domestic, and familial relationships of the time and place in history. Another criticism is that Dunlop has over simplified his description of actors. For example, critics argue that actors’ roles are often changing with new business environments and the emergence of new actors- such as customers and community. Critics also argue that actors make different strategic choices at different levels (eg. Kochan’s model), but Dunlop’s model does not take his into account. The model places a lot of emphasis on roles as opposed to people, thus ignoring behavioural aspects like human motivations and preferences. Other criticisms of Dunlop go on to disagree with his premise that the function of IR is ideological- to regulate conflict and integrate actors. These criticisms range from those who argue that the ideology within IR is not integ rative, but rather reconciliatory (reconcile with the dominant ideology), to those who argue that the ideology in IR is to delegitimize all actors except for workers (thus undermining employers’ authority). Others also argue that IR is non-ideological and unstable, thanks to rapid modernization and high competition. The most loudly uttered criticism of all is that the systems theory does not explain change in the field. This leads to Heery’s second type of IR model building- the models of change. This type of model has a historical perspective and looks at how change occurs in IR over time. The models also examine the pattern of change and whether it is cyclical or directional, gradual, or catastrophic, and its origin- endogenous (from within the employment relationship) or exogenous (from the wider economy and society). Heery looks at six different types of change models that are broadly divided into exogenous and endogenous. Both exogenous and endogenous models have two subdivisions each of directional (gradual and disjunctive) and cyclical change. In the exogenous-gradual model, IR change occurs due to gradual, cumulative change that is driven by forces beyond the employment control. An example is globalization. In the exogenous-disjunctive model, episodes of change are interspersed with periods of stability. The change itself is triggered into the employment relationship by some external event, like a war. In the exogenous-cyclical model, change follows a repeating cycle of decline and renewal as IR adapts to cyclical pressures in the external environment, such as election pressures and the economy. In the endogenous-cyclical model, change occurs because of the competing drives of the actors. For example, IR is said to be both adversarial (due to the competing interests) and cooperative (due to interdependence of the parties). Thus IR will oscillate between adversarial and cooperative mindsets depending on the context as the limitations of each approach become apparent to both management and workers. In the endogenous-disjunctive model, change occurs as a result of strategic choices of the actors within the employment relations. For example, as a result of unions’ traditional marginalization of women’s and minorities’ issues, there has been an increased mobilization of women and minorities within unions. In the endogenous-gradual model, change is gradually driven by forces internal to IR. This model stresses the maturing of IR institutions over time, as they become more complex and start to pursue differentiated goals- this is a model of union revitalization as a result of knowledge transfer and networking within the labour movement. Heery’s review of the two types of models of looking at IR is comprehensive in looking at the criticism of the systems theory, but does not analyze the change models with the same depth. As a relatively new student in the field, I would have benefitted from a more detailed description of the change model before dwelling into its critique. However, I felt that Heery’s description of the change models was very streamlined and organized in a logical manner. I found his inclusion of a short discussion on the ‘new actors’ that have interests in IR, such as consumers or identity groups particularly interesting and worth considering. In the end, I do agree with Heery, and think that IR is a dynamic and complex field and it is certainly useful to have more than one perspective of studying and thinking about how these relationships are formed, changed, and managed. How to cite System and Change in Industrial Relations Analysis, Papers

Large turnout for lebanses vote Essay Example For Students

Large turnout for lebanses vote Essay Many voters returned to their hometowns in Mount Lebanon, the countrys most populous province, and to the Bekaa Valley to cast their ballots in the third of four rounds of staggered parliamentary elections, the first free of the dominance of Syrian forces in nearly three decades. Anti-Syrian forces need a strong showing in Sundays vote at least 45 seats for a majority to win a firm grasp on the 128-member Parliament and wean it of Damascus control. But the campaign has led to some surprising alliances and some races were too close to call. Lines formed outside polling stations in Mount Lebanon, a mountain region surrounding Beirut and stretching north and south of the city. Halfway through the voting, turnout topped 50 percent in some areas, Prime Minister Najib Mikati said. Michel Aoun, who recently broke with other opponents of Damascus and forged alliances with pro-Syrian politicians to form an anti-corruption ticket, was among the first to vote. He arrived under heavy guard at a polling station Haret Hreik, a Shiite Muslim southern suburb of Beirut that is the stronghold of the pro-Syrian militant group Hezbollah. About 200 supporters cheered and applauded for the Christian leader, who returned home in May after 14 years exile in France. Aoun, who was making his first trip to his hometown in more than 20 years, said he hoped his Free Patriotic Movement would debut in Parliament with at least 12 seats. In the end, we all bow before the peoples will, he told reporters. The former general was the main challenger of the anti-Syrian opposition in Mount Lebanon and his success could hurt the oppositions drive to gain a majority in the legislature and, depending on the number of seats he gains, could make him a key player in the effort to end Syrian control. Druse opposition leader Walid Jumblatt, who has claimed that pro-Syrians brought Aoun out of exile to divide the opposition, pledged not to allow the former general to steal our victory.We are laying the foundations for a moderate, independent Lebanon, Jumblatt said of his alliance with right-wing Christians, Hezbollah and Saad Hariri, the son of the slain former Premier Rafik Hariri. Jumblatt, too, has forged alliances with pro-Syrians like Hezbollah and the Shiite Amal group. About 1.2 million men and women over 21 are eligible to vote Sunday. Some 100 candidates are competing in Mount Lebanon for 35 seats, allocated to different sects according to Lebanons power-sharing political system. In the eastern Bekaa Valley near the Syrian border, 119 people were competing for 23 seats. Official results were not expected before Monday. Two seats that were uncontested in Mount Lebanon went to Jumblatt and ally Marwan Hamadeh, both lawmakers in the outgoing parliament. In the first two rounds of voting, in Beirut and the south, seats were split almost evenly between opponents of Syria and supporters of the Shiite Hezbollah. The north votes in the last phase of elections next Sunday. Pro-Syrian President Emile Lahoud voted in his Christian mountain hometown of Baabdat. He vowed to fight opposition attempts to force his resignation. No one can isolate me, he declared. Im staying to the last moment I have in my tenure.Several hundred Druse lined up to vote in mountain towns, many men wearing traditional black baggy pants and white caps and women in black flowing robes and white head scarves. Troops stood guard as supporters of Jumblatt and those of his Druse rival Talal Arsalan waved flags. God willing, this day will pass peacefully, said Munira Salman Shaya in Dadghan. In her late 50s, Shaya said she voted for the Jumblatt-backed ticket because this is what the leader asked us to do.Minor scuffles were reported in the regions Sunday, but the voting was largely peaceful. The government sent army and police reinforcements to Mount Lebanon after election-related violence last week. .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c , .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .postImageUrl , .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c , .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c:hover , .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c:visited , .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c:active { border:0!important; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c:active , .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u70317895c281f6ac7b6dc0578e6a3e9c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Mr Bill Bryson EssayIn the Bekaa Valley, Hezbollah was expected to dominate the northern Baalbek-Hermel district. Elsewhere, candidates from the opposition, pro-Syrians, independents and traditional families fought for seats. Syria withdrew its military forces from Lebanon in late April under international pressure and mass protests. But the United States has accused Damascus of not fully withdrawing its intelligence operatives and perhaps even organizing political assassinations. Syria has denied the allegations. U.N. envoy Terje Roed-Larsen met with Syrian President Bashar Assad for two hours in Damascus but left the country without commenting on the outcome of the talks. The Lebanese opposition blames Syria and its Lebanese allies for the murders of Hariri and the anti-Syrian journalist Samir Kassir. Both parties deny the allegations.

How to develop essay writing skills

A Good student is the one who always enjoys writing essays because it helps them shine in front of the real world. Essays are the first and most basic form of an assignment in which a writer presents his thoughts on a piece of paper on different topics within the limits of a given word count. For such students, every essay comes with a new challenge, the challenge of writing a new essay better than the previous one. But the problem arises when you are out of words and got stuck in the middle of the essay. You at any cost have to make it 100% perfect. What will you do now? Well, you don’t need to worry now. Here in this article, we shed light on some tricks and tips on essay writing that help students write an impressive article within no time. Read other essays on the Internet: Reading books or assignment help students mold their own English writing skills, so if a student makes a habit of reading other people’s essays it will help them to build and develop their essay writing skills. Read essays on a different topic on different subjects, not that just those subjects that you are studying. Every subject has different kinds of writing styles, so the more you read an essay the more you get a chance to make your essay better. Once you have finished reading the essay, list out the points that you think are best, the points that need improvement and do you think that the argument they present here in the essay is balanced, does the writer present enough of evidence to support the argument. This list will help you make necessary improvement in your next essay. Vocabulary: Vocabulary building is a must if you want yourself to stand out in your class. Every day make a list of 5-10 new words and try to memorize them with their meanings. This will help you convey your point of view more effectively. Good vocabulary creates a good impression on the teachers. Below are some ways that help students build their vocabulary: †¢ Use of thesaurus †¢ Use dictionary and list down the words that you think are new for you †¢ Learn roots, suffixes, and prefixes Always remember, never use big words, as it might create a negative effect on the reader. Your main goal is to make your essay easy-to-understand by all, not just by one person. Use words that build an argument: Another important thing that makes your essay outstanding is not repeating yourself again and again. Make sure the words you use must make some sense; there must be proper sentence structure and grammar. For example, instead of using â€Å"also† again and again, you can also use, ‘however’, ‘furthermore’ and ‘moreover’. Repeating a single word, again and again, will make your essay weak. Sentence structure, punctuation, and syntax: A simple sentence structure will make a huge difference in your essays. A reader with this one sentence can judge how intelligent a writer is. It is already discussed above that a good essay is one that is easy to understand by all, but this can also be possible by using interesting syntax within sentences. There is no restriction on how long or short a sentence it, but don’t let your sentence too long that the reader will forget what he actually read at the start of the sentence. Another thing that is important in an essay is the use of effective punctuation. Always remember, a good essay is one that forces the reader read the full essay with interest. It must be engaging and interesting. Essays are written in the formal tone, but that doesn’t mean that you turn it out boring. Be confident while writing. Proofreading and editing: Before submitting your essay, it is always suggested to read your essay two or three times in order to make sure that they are 100% error free. You can also ask your elders to proofread your essay for you. Also, there are a lot of online essay writing companies that help students proofread their essays in reasonable prices. Today it is extremely easy to get your hands on professional writing companies. With just one click you can access to hundreds of thousands of essay writing companies that not provide you with writing service but also help you proofread your written essays at an extremely affordable rate. s.co.uk: If you are looking for a professional essay writing company then stop your search now. We at s provide you quality content that is written from scratch at an unbeatable rate. No matter what the essay topic is we provide you plagiarism and error free content  on the given deadline.

Should Race be a Consideration in College Admissions essays

Should Race be a Consideration in College Admissions essays A compelling argument against using race as a consideration in college admissions is that everyone has something different about them, if one looks hard enough, and so anyone could claim minority status in some way. To use individual traits of arbitrary choice does not make sense, as this writer notes, "Individualism cannot be defined via individuating or important traits. The principle of individualism is really meant to capture the completely different idea that people should be judged only by traits they choose. That is why race, an involuntary, immutable trait, is an improper basis for judgment" (Levin, 1997, p. 338). One cannot choose one's race, but one can choose other traits to excel at, and so, traits that are chosen and agreed on should be used as considerations for college admissions, such as GPAs, athletic and social abilities, membership in extracurricular activities, and test scores. These are all attributes that students have some input and control over, and these, not traits that cannot be chosen and acted upon, should be used to ensure everyone gets an equal chance at education and advancement. The weakness here is that those students who do not choose to work on themselves may not gain admission; while the strength is that those students who work hard will have a better Eliminating standardized testing is also a way to eliminate race as a basis for college admissions. Standardized tests measure nothing but standard learning. Each individual is different, and should be evaluated on those differences, rather than what they have in common with everyone else. Standardized testing is also suspect as to really giving a balanced view of actual learning. Another writer states, "The overriding conclusion is neither new nor earthshaking: in crafting a college admissions policy, tests serve as useful, but far from perfect, tools" (Zwick, 1999, p. 320). ...

Mass migration from rural to urban areas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Mass migration from rural to urban areas - Essay Example In China, the particular phenomenon, has led to the transformation of the country’s existing social and economic characteristics. It should be noted that in China, mass migration is rather a recent activity; indeed, it was just after the 1970s that the initial trends for mass migration towards Chinese cities were identified (Zhou 2009). The changes on the common political and social structure are just part of this activity. As in all countries worldwide, in China mass migration has been a continuous expanding phenomenon, quite difficult to be controlled. In accordance with the literature published in the particular field, the positive effects of mass migration in China have been combined with certain drawbacks, a fact which is made clear in cities across the country. The environmental challenges of the specific activity, as explained below, lead to the assumption that mass migration in China should be closely monitored as threatening the country’s natural environment. T he introduction of appropriate measures could help to the transformation of mass migration in China to a proactive social and economic activity; the damages of this activity on the country’s environment could be also reduced, even in the long term. 2. Mass migration in China – benefits and drawbacks 2.1 Economic, social and political benefits of mass migration from rural to urban areas in China – comparison to the negative effects of this activity The development of Chinese urban areas has been highly supported by the rural population. In accordance with Zweig (1997) because of the needs of rural construction thousands of male farmers have been relocated to cities; their income has been increased and their lifestyle has been changed (Zweig 1997, p.20). Through this process, the structure of workforce in the country’s rural areas has been changed – the percentage of women in the labour workforce of these areas has been increased, a fact that led to the transformation of social life in these regions. The development of mass migration in China resulted to the following economic and social benefits: a) the urban areas of the country were highly developed, b) the economic performance of the country was improved; the services sector – mainly developed in ur ban areas – was improved, along with the manufacturing sector, supporting the country’s growth, c) the living conditions of people were improved – especially in terms of medical support, education and leisure (Ping 2004). However, gradually, mass migration in China has led to the change of employment prospects in the country’s cities. In the past, the level of unemployment in Chinese cities was relatively low – due to the lack of sufficient workforce; however, today, the prospects for work in large Chinese cities have been reduced. This phenomenon is described in the study of Yeh et al. (2011) where reference is made to the increase of street vending in Chinese cities, as a result of the increase of unemployment. It is explained that the labour surplus in Chinese cities has led to the development of the particular mode of work, at such level that today street vending has become ‘the occupation of the 4% of the entire employed populationâ€⠄¢ (Yeh et al. 2011, p.30). The above phenomenon reflects the economic turbulences related to mass migration in China; it also shows the potential effects of mass migration on society. Because of mass migration, a significant part of the population has been led to choose modes of work that offer a low quality of life, such

International Relations Course Informal Personal Intro Essay

International Relations Course Informal Personal Intro - Essay Example Therefore, the values gathered from this cause can be used in my life to foster peace in our country through interrelations, despite of their race, creed or nationality. In this case, by understanding these values, I will be able to interact with people of different background; despite the differences caused by diversity in our daily lives, and I can also avoid conflicts and resolve them whenever they arise. I have high expectations of acquiring a chance for developing diverse virtuals that will facilitate the process of becoming someone who can make a positive contribution in the world. Moreover, through this course I expect to gather skills for interrelation that will enable forming networks of mutual responsibility and a platform for sharing potential with other people around the world. I also expect to meet a highly dedicated instructor in this course, who can offer a chance to share my commitment as a student throughout the course. Moreover, I hope the course will facilitate the process of building my capabilities and character of virtuous and responsible individual, who can contribute in making the world a better place for others and me. I also expect the instructor to be honest, fair, to have critical rigor and to be a source of inspiration to the students. Furthermore, I hope that we will utilize the time offered during this course to learn and for the fair purpose that is benef icial to all students. Â   Studying this course will enable gathering of knowledge and insights that can facilitate building of intercultural competencies, and sustainable disposition. Therefore, this will enable others and me to relate and build a form of interdependence, whereby facilitating globalization. The course will also make a vital contribution in development of new perception towards political reality. Therefore, this will enable building of critical and reflexive knowledge, practical values, relations that will facilitate good coexistence. Knowledge

An Analysis and Review of West Virginia's Governmental Fund Research Paper

An Analysis and Review of West Virginia's Governmental Fund - Research Paper Example However, the implementation of governmental programs and services depends primarily on the allocation of the fund to different sectors. On the other hand, the preparation of its financial statements is in accordance to the â€Å"generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP)† in the U.S (â€Å"Audited Financial Statements,† 2007, p. 15). While the necessities and nature of activities from various agencies differ, so does fund allotment, must conform to the purposes it intends to provide. According to the 2007 West Virginia audited financial statements, the methods for reporting governmental fund are the â€Å"current financial resources measurement focus and the modified accrual basis of accounting† (â€Å"Audited Financial Statements,† 2007, p. 16). It is through these financial statements where â€Å"property taxes, franchise taxes, and interest† that accompanied the present â€Å"fiscal period† are acknowledged as the cash reserve for the period (â€Å"Audited Financial Statements,† 2007, p. 16). This essay seeks to analyze and review the financial statements and audit report of Kanawha County, West Virginia, using the general fund and all the other funds of the government. II. Method of Accounting The government reports the fund in three categories. First, the governmental fund, which includes the general fund and the capital-project fund, integrates the current financial resources management and a modified accrual basis of accounting, where it does not have depreciation expense and long-term debt. Second, the proprietary fund, which includes the entertainment and the internal service fund, utilizes the economic resources measurement focus and the accrual basis of accounting, where it requires a â€Å"statement of net assets, statement of revenues, expenses, and cash flow statements.† Lastly, the fiduciary fund employs the economic resources focus and the accrual basis of accounting, where it may not have the provision to fund other programs as the government functions as the trustee (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2000, pp. 10-11). All these funds use the accrual method of accounting. Under the requirements of the â€Å"Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB),† the application of the accrual method is suitable to maintain a balanced set of account where the expenditures correspond to the finances in the conduct of governmental operations. This is particularly significant since the accrual basis provides a comprehensive detail in the â€Å"understanding of economic reality† especially in determining the consequences of budget allotment (Ball & Pflugrath, 2012, p. 7). III. Compliance of GASB Statement 34, and Evaluation of MD&A for State and Local Government GASB Statement 34 requires a complete accrual method, which aims to have long-term capital assets consisting of infrastructure. It also covers the Management's Discussion and Analysis (MD&A) of the go vernment’s monetary operation in recognizing its entire economic status (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2000, p. 8). As for the case of Kanawha County, the challenge it poses for compliance with GASB Statement 34 will depend on the cost and duration of time before its complete implementation in the local government. Additionally, if this would manifest a genuine thrust for transparency and accountability, this would strengthen its audit reports and economic condition in terms of financing governmental and business-type

Benefits of Training Employees in an Organization

Benefits of Training Employees in an Organization The aim of this paper is to identify all there is to know about training, the impact it has on both firms and employees and then, the reason why, although it is beneficial provision to business growth, still some organisations and individuals are not willing to accept the idea of investing in training and development. In order to come to that claim, it is necessary to mention first the cost-effectiveness of training and development, by which methods it can be reinsured, and the involvement of training in an organisations prosperity and even more, when it has to do with the integration in a international market. To begin properly, it should be noticed that training at any level and in whatever form this can take, could have only positive aspect. Considering that, training means investing in people to enable them perform better and to empower them to make the best use of their natural abilities (Armstrong, 1996; 2003). Through the practice of a range of activities, it is believed that learning is an important clue here, as a means for developing a high performance culture and achieving businesss competitive advantage (Pieper, 1990, Salaman, 1992, Tyson, 1996). This appear clearly from the below definitions of training. According to Heevy and Noon (2001), training is the process of changing the skills, attitudes, and knowledge of employees with the purpose of improving their level of competence. It is a planned process, usually involving a series of stages where incremental improvements can be identified. It takes two main focus 1) on the job training whereby an employee observing the tasks, being guided through them by experts, and then practising them. 2) Off the job training whereby an employee is instructed away from the place of work, either in a training room on the premises or at a separate location. This training is more often theory based and might even take the form of self learning packages (Heevy and Noon, 2001). Furthermore, as Manpower Services Commission defined training in 1981, it is the following: A planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skill behavior through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an activity or range of activities. Its purpose, in the w ork situation, is to develop the abilities of the individual and to satisfy the current and future manpower needs of the organization. Seeing the definition of the training from the perspective of education as Smith put it: Development refers to the growth of realization of a persons ability, through conscious or unconscious education, where education is activities which aim at developing the knowledge, skills, moral values and understanding required in all aspects of life, rather than a knowledge and skill relating to only a limited field of activity (Smith, 1992). Besides the definition of training, the mention of the potential benefits for both employees and firms and from which methods these are derived, is essential in order to understand why training is so important for the business (Lonr, 1990, Murray, 2007). It is worthwhile to point that it cannot be any development without the training procedure. As it has already been mentioned, training aims to develop employees competences and to improve their performance but also, to reduce the learning time needed for employees starting in a new job on appointment, transfer or promotion and to ensure that they will become fully competent as quickly and economically as possible (J. Swart et al, 2005). When a training programme being used effectively, then the benefits for employees are numerous and are illustrated on firms performance. It also helps to manage changes and provide to employees the knowledge and skills they need to adjust with new situations and work demands, as well as to adopt new t echnologies and methods, to be innovative (Armstrong, 2003). In that way, employees motivation is increased and the same goes to efficiencies in processes resulting in firms financial gain while employees turnover is being reduced. Highly trained workforce provides higher levels of service to customers which enhance companys image (Mullins, 2007). The cost-effectiveness of training is a vital element because it can help the line manager to establish credibility, to reveal the value of the training by achieving both operational savings and increases in firms revenue; then, enforce the organization to look training more as an investment and less as a dispensable cost of operation. By training their employees, companies maximize the potential of this investment (Campbell, 1995). In order to improve the skills of its human resource, an organization can either train its existing employees or recruit pre-skilled labor forces that have been trained elsewhere (Booth, 1998; Jameson, 2000). The importance of investment in training and development is matter of whether a firm is treating its employees as a resource or as a cost (Tysson, 1996; Long, 1990; Jackson, 1989; Jameson, 2000). By exploiting the meaning of each word that consists Human Resource Management; human implies the workforce, resource implies investment, management implies development (Sisson, 1989). It is demonstrated that the consideration of human asset as investment for the firm through strategic development can maximize its potential, and the training is the tool that can provide it. So, companies with unwillingness to consider employees as investment, can simply be called not HRM practicing. In adverse, companies reluctant to invest in their human resources, rely on a short-term human asset, which, mainly, is low skilled training, less loyalty to its work and easy replaceable due to the lower cost of loss for the firm (Harzing, 1995; Jameson, 2000; Mullins, 2007). Most managers recognize the vital role that continuous learning plays in todays marketplace in order to maximize companys competitive advantage (Harzing, 1995; Gordon, 1991). However, some managers are reluctant to invest in their employees and train them. The reasons why is happening are variable. The market from its own, in which each company is doing business, deduct any potential training (Booth, 1994; Graven, 1998). More specific, the market is divided to the primary labour market, where jobs tend to be supplied by large, highly profitable firms with high capital to labour ratio and high productivity. Here, production is usually large scale with high investment in technology with more opportunities for training. The secondary labour market includes small firms with low capital to labour ratio, low productivity and small scale production. In these firms, wage and skill levels tend to be low, employment is unstable and training opportunities are usually limited. Significantly, small businesses experience problems in providing training for both owner-managers and workers. (Curran et al., 1996) Reasons for not providing such training are that companies do not believe in the effectiveness of training and they do not consider it as a big component for a better performance. Hence, when profits are under pressure or other developments are on stake, the most common reaction is to cut training fund. Also, recruiting skilled labor is more economical than practicing training and development policies. But they neglect that teamwork, employees initiatives, people talents are all part of the financial model and when these figures are maximized the same goes with the business economic growth (Bentley, 1991; Campell, 1995) Traditional styles of management based on authoritarian, non-participatory tenets of employees and managers who have grown up in a system like this, is unlikely to be ready to abandon familiar tried and trusted methods and be welcomed to a better trained, self reliant and questioning human force (Sisson, 1989). Some of them claim that there is limited time for the practice of training program. Indeed, a training program to be effective needs a lot of both employers and employees time and commitment, it also may take all employees job-life to be efficient. Job conditions change constantly in the business environment, so the continuous learning is required but nobody has the state or the emotional strength to be in a training position all the time. In that point, there are two categories that can be distinguished (Armstrong, 2003; Murray, 2007; Currie, 1997). Employers that do not believe in the importance of the process and employees that do not find interest to be trained, specifically if they have obtained a high image in the firm and they are known for their distinctive qualifications. Contrary to that, some employees want to develop their skills and knowledge whereby they will contribute to their companys success (Keep, 1989). They want training but their managers do not want to be confronted by this task, they are unwillingness to try, and simply they avoid it. From the perspective of the length of a training program, which could take weeks, months or even the entire career of the employees it can be a major expense especially for firms with traditionally high turnover. Besides, the common belief that is the responsibility of the school system to train people to be workers and is the workers responsibility to learn how to do a job so they can get hired is another reason why employers not practice their manpower (Collin, 2003). Government regulations, insurance coverages, and common sense dictate relevant training that should be given to every employee. Still, few employers do not find it significant to train their human force (Collin, 2003; Noon, 2001). A discouragement of not training is, also, the gap that arises when trainees are transferred from the training course to a job, to apply their knowledge and skills in practice. As long as they are in a training centre, they are sheltered from the realities of the rough and tumble workplace. For managers and team leaders, the problem of transferring from learning situation to the real conditions may be even more difficult because most of management training tends to deal with relatively abstract concepts like motivation and leadership, and the connection between what is being learned in the class room and what is really happening in work, may not always be apparent. That is why the training must always be compatible to employees needs (Armstrong, 2003, Noon, 2001). Another reason of not practicing training can be regarded the difficulty in measuring the effectiveness of a training program. Measuring cost of training needs a lot of efforts from the senior manager because apart from training results are also other interacting variables such as administrative costs, relocation, course design and material costs that have to be taken into account. Therefore are different methods that can be used from the manager in order to derive an acceptable figure for the effectiveness of training course. Those methods vary from sector and companys size. Hence manager has to have the ability to choose the one, which fit to the business needs. Any failure to the accounting of training-cost can mislead to wrong results, to an ineffective training proposal and that will discourage the company to practice training (Murley, 2007; Belcour, 1995t; Gordon, 1991). Moreover, it can be said that firms are not invested in training because of the flexible working environment. They claim that investing in people can be a boomerang for their business competitive advantage, as it is likely employees will leave the company and transfer their knowledge into competitors firm. Despite the likelihood of this event, employers have to understand that the key for organizations success is the human factor. By investing in human asset training, they invest in employees commitment to the firm and more as the firm invests in the development of their skills (Armstrong, 2003; Craven 1994; Hall, 1991). It cannot be ignored the providence of the HRDF, a levy reimbursement scheme establishing in 1992. Under HRDF, employers pay a payroll contribution of one percent and are eligible to claim a portion of allowable training expenditures up to the limit of their total levy for any given year. The reimbursement rates vary by sector and type of training. Empirical analysis showed that firms least likely to claim from HRDF are small firms and firms providing no training or only informal training. Important factors that employers cite as inhibiting their training: the limited resources available for it, the use of mature technology with low skill requirements, the adequacy of skills provided by schools, and the availability of skilled workers who can be hired from other firms (Tan and Gill, 1998). Generally, levy schemes have led to an increase in quantity of training. In some countries levy schemes have had some impact on increasing training. A common feature of schemes in which training has increased has been the fact that an effective system is in place for administering the levy both for levy collection as well as administration of grants. On the other hand, there were very complicated rules governing training requirements for the levy and the criteria for approval, dissuade employers from investing in it (Edwards, 1997). Firms which may have otherwise invested more in training, tend to reduce their effort to the level required by law in order to receive the minimum rebate or tax credit. There is also some evidence which suggests that if firms are reluctant to train, they organize training which is not relevant to their needs in order to qualify for the rebate or tax credit. Additionally, smaller firms may be less likely to train their workers as they feel that costs are significant and the training which is provided may not be relevant to their needs. Even if training is provided, the bureaucracy involved in persuing reimbursements dissuades firms from submitting claims for reimbursements. (Herschbach, 1993). Concluding, this paper attempted to define the reasons why there are organizations that are reluctant to see their manpower as an important asset in business success and so invest on them and train them. Now, the interplay between the benefits that are derived from any form of training and the cost-effectiveness of training for the firms is seemed to be more clear. In general, companies which operate in the increasingly competitive international market were forced to attach training and development as equal to the vital acknowledgement that the training needs are more like an investment rather than a cost and that, partly due the cultural diversity that the international integration occurs and partly because of the rapid economic and technological growth. All these also reflect the companies outlook on how important is the quality of those they recruit, because a companys image is as good as is its personnel and it is vital to select and train the best. (Upton, 1987) Unfortunately, i n many cases this process is considered by many managers as meaningless, too time consuming, a bureaucratic exercise only, or even as something that intervene to their departments work. For some organizations, the maintenance and the wellbeing of the equipment and machinery seems more important than to make an effort to the wellbeing and development of their own employees (Sun, 2001). But as it has been already highlighted, the key for success, even profit, for any firm at any size is its human asset and to invest in them infer to business future (Hall, 1991, Armstrong, 2003).

King Lear :: essays research papers

King Lear Essay Shakespeare has written dozens of plays and in each one he has included some of the most complex characters ever put on stage. Hamlet, Othello, and Macbeth are just a few examples of these great characters that will always remain in our memories. However, standing beside the complex main characters in plays such as King Lear and Hamlet, there are secondary characters of equal, if not greater complexity. In King Lear, secondary characters such as Edmund, Edgar, and Cordelia are directly responsible many of the extreme changes that occur during the play and it is their complexity as human characters that allows them to do this. The many antagonists that have appeared in Shakespeare’s plays have always been fairly rounded and complex. However, Edmund is one of the most complex villains in any of Shakespeare’s plays. For one thing, Edmund chose to become a villain because the world sees him as being worthless, not only because he is not in line for the title of Earl of Gloucester, but also because he is a bastard. Most villains in Shakespeare’s plays are villains from the beginning to the end. Edmund sees himself as an equal to his brother Edgar and wishes that his father also understand this. By plotting against the livelihood against his own father and brother, Edgar not only wishes to gain the wealth and title that come with the Earl of Gloucester, but he also seeks respect. Shakespeare has given Edmund a method behind his madness. As the play progresses, Edmund sees the kingdom collapsing and instead of helping to put in back together, as Cordelia, Edgar, and Kent are doing, he tries to consolidate power into his own hands. After Cornwall dies, he takes command of the armies and defeats the French invading army. He has illicit affairs with Regan and Goneril, who are married. The result of these affairs causes the two sisters to become overwhelming jealous, and in the end, we find out that Regan poisoned Goneril in order to have Edmund to herself. If Edmund had not been killed in the end, he would have taken power and ruled the kingdom. However, Edgar does kill him after realizing that it was he who caused the death of his father. We see the greatest complexity in Edgar before he dies before when he proclaims â€Å"The wheel comes full circle; L am here. King Lear :: essays research papers King Lear Essay Shakespeare has written dozens of plays and in each one he has included some of the most complex characters ever put on stage. Hamlet, Othello, and Macbeth are just a few examples of these great characters that will always remain in our memories. However, standing beside the complex main characters in plays such as King Lear and Hamlet, there are secondary characters of equal, if not greater complexity. In King Lear, secondary characters such as Edmund, Edgar, and Cordelia are directly responsible many of the extreme changes that occur during the play and it is their complexity as human characters that allows them to do this. The many antagonists that have appeared in Shakespeare’s plays have always been fairly rounded and complex. However, Edmund is one of the most complex villains in any of Shakespeare’s plays. For one thing, Edmund chose to become a villain because the world sees him as being worthless, not only because he is not in line for the title of Earl of Gloucester, but also because he is a bastard. Most villains in Shakespeare’s plays are villains from the beginning to the end. Edmund sees himself as an equal to his brother Edgar and wishes that his father also understand this. By plotting against the livelihood against his own father and brother, Edgar not only wishes to gain the wealth and title that come with the Earl of Gloucester, but he also seeks respect. Shakespeare has given Edmund a method behind his madness. As the play progresses, Edmund sees the kingdom collapsing and instead of helping to put in back together, as Cordelia, Edgar, and Kent are doing, he tries to consolidate power into his own hands. After Cornwall dies, he takes command of the armies and defeats the French invading army. He has illicit affairs with Regan and Goneril, who are married. The result of these affairs causes the two sisters to become overwhelming jealous, and in the end, we find out that Regan poisoned Goneril in order to have Edmund to herself. If Edmund had not been killed in the end, he would have taken power and ruled the kingdom. However, Edgar does kill him after realizing that it was he who caused the death of his father. We see the greatest complexity in Edgar before he dies before when he proclaims â€Å"The wheel comes full circle; L am here.

Functions of Management Essay

This seminar would not have been possible without the assistance of a number of eminent persons. First of all I thank God almighty for blessing this venture and finish successfully. I express my sincere thanks to Head of the Department, MBA Narayanaguru College Of Engineering,Chennai for his encouragement and support for the successful completion for this seminar. I also express my sincere gratitude to my guide, for the kind assistance, supervision, encouragement and constructive criticism, which gave me constant support amidst of her busy schedule throughout my seminar work. I also express my wholehearted gratitude to all my classmates who have co-operated and supported for doing this seminar. I also thank my family members for their loving support. I extend my sincere thanks and gratitude once again to all those who helped me to make this undertaking a success. INTRODUCTION Management is a universal phenomenon. It is a very popular and widely used term. All organizations – business, political, cultural or social are involved in management because it is the management which helps and directs the various efforts towards a definite purpose. According to Harold Koontz, â€Å"Management is an art of getting things done through and with the people in formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people can perform and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals†. According to F. W. Taylor, â€Å"Management is an art of knowing what to do, when to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest way†. Management is a purposive activity. It is something that directs group efforts towards the attainment of certain pre – determined goals. It is the process of working with and through others to effectively achieve the goals of the organization, by efficiently using limited resources in the changing world. Of course, these goals may vary from one enterprise to another. E. g. : For one enterprise it may be launching of new products by conducting market surveys and for other it may be profit maximization by minimizing cost. Management is often included as a factor of production along with‚ machines, materials, and money. According to the management guru Peter Drucker (1909-2005), the basic task of management includes both marketing and innovation. Practice of modern management originates from the 16th century study of low-efficiency and failures of certain enterprises, conducted by the English statesman Sir Thomas More (1478-1535). Management consists of the interlocking functions of creating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing an organization’sresources in order to achieve the objectives of that policy Management in all business and organizational activities is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial resources, technological resources and natural resources. One of the first persons to sit down and try to work out what managers do (and what they should do) was a Frenchman called Henri Fayol. Fayol was a mining engineer who became the managing director of an ailing coal mining firm and turned it into a highly successful coal and steel business. All this took place between 1888 and 1918, when he retired. In 1916, after many years of thinking about the job of the manager, he published a small book called General and Industrial Management. Henry Fayol was years ahead of his time in linking strategy and organizational theory and in emphasizing the need for management development and the qualities of leadership. Igor Ansoff, in Corporate Strategy (1965) said that Fayol ‘anticipated imaginatively and soundly most of the more recent analyses of modern business practice,’ although Peter Drucker in his great compendium Management: Tasks, Responsibilities and Practice (1973), criticized the application of Fayol’s functional approach to larger and more complex organizations than the one he knew and managed. Oddly enough, it was years before a translation appeared in English, even though it contains a great deal of wisdom and sense. Henri Fayol, the father of the school of Systematic Management, was motivated to create a theoretical foundation for a managerial educational program based on his experience as a successful managing director of a mining company. In his day, managers had no formal training and he observed that the increasing complexity of organisations would require more professional management. Fayol’s legacy is his generic Principles of Management. Of Fayol’s six generic activities for industrial undertakings (technical, commercial, financial, security, accounting, managerial), the most important were The Five Functions of Management that focused on the key relationships between personnel and its management. The Five Functions are: 1. Planning drawing up plans of actions that combine unity, continuity, flexibility and precision given the organisation’s resources, type and significance of work and future trends. Creating a plan of action is the most difficult of the five tasks and requires the active participation of the entire organisation. Planning must be coordinated on different levels and with different time horizons; 2. Organising providing capital, personnel and raw materials for the day-to-day running of the business, and building a structure to match the work. Organisational structure depends entirely on the number of employees. An increase in the number of functions expands the organisation horizontally and promotes additional layers of supervision; 3. Commanding optimising return from all employees in the interest of the entire enterprise. Successful managers have personal integrity, communicate clearly and base their judgments on regular audits. Their thorough knowledge of personnel creates unity, energy, initiative and loyalty and eliminates incompetence; 4. Coordinating unifying and harmonizing activities and efforts to maintain the balance between the activities of the organisation as in sales to production and procurement to production. Fayol recommended weekly conferences for department heads to solve problems of common interest; 5. Controlling identifying weaknesses and errors by controlling feedback, and conforming activities with plans, policies and instructions. Fayol’s management process went further than Taylor’s basic hierarchical model by allowing command functions to operate efficiently and effectively through co-ordination and control methods. For Fayol, the managing director overlooked a living organism that requires liaison officers and joint committees. The first and last functions—planning and control—are immediately recognizable from the analysis that has just been carried out, and indeed there tends to be less argument generally about these two functions than about others. Organizing is, of course, similar to planning in that it is concerned with preparation for some future events. But whereas planning is the more glamorous activity of deciding on the overall future direction of the business, organization is that tough, demanding business of putting together the elements in such a way that the overall plans succeed. Command is seen as the function that actually makes things happen. It is really derived from military practice, and no doubt in Fayol’s time all employees in organizations responded to command. The very word suggests ‘ordering about’ and has been the subject of a great deal of debate and argument. Fayol did not really intend it to be taken in a very narrow sense, but rather in the sense of making sure that things get done—the actual operations of the organization. As a result, all kinds of substitute words have been used in its place—like ‘direction’ and (horribly) ‘actuating’. The fifth function of management in Fayol’s view is that of co-ordination. It is concerned with harmony, with making sure that all the bits work together, and, like an orchestra under its conductor, play the same tune. This is the only function that does not seem easily to stand on its own and will be found to be part of planning, of organizing, of control, and the key to successful operations themselves. An organization, therefore, begins with a strategic plan or definition of goals, progresses to a structure to put that plan into action, is carried forward by controlled activity between manager and workforce, has the work of its disparate departments harmonized by coordinated management and, finally, is subject to checks on the efficiency of its working, preferably by the ndependent ‘staff’ departments separate from the functional departments. The five functions of management have been adequately discussed, but there are two other aspects of management that Fayol mentioned that must be looked at separately. Fayol believed that a manager obtained the best performance from his workforce by leadership qualities, by his knowledge of the business and his workers, and by the ability to ins till sense of mission. Qualities needed in a manger: †¢ Physical: healthy, vigorous; Mental: ability to understand and learn, judgment, mental vigor, adaptability; †¢ Moral: firmness, acceptance of responsibility, initiative, loyalty, tact; †¢ General Education: good general knowledge; †¢ Special Knowledge: for the work; †¢ Experience Fayol also stressed on the importance of managerial training, ‘steady, methodical training of all employees at all levels’, and made the point that a manager should not ignore his responsibility for his own training. Fayol’s 14 principles derive from the circumstance that Fayol felt that management was not well defined. In his striving to change this circumstance he suggested â€Å"some generalized teaching of management† to be a main part of every curriculum at places of higher education and even beginning in â€Å"primary schools† . Fayol’s dedication to this idea is demonstrated by the fact that after retirement he went on to not just write books about management ideas, but more importantly, he found the Centre For Administrative Studies (CAS) in 1917 in Paris . The CAS mainly functioned as a centre of discussion between professionals from a large variety of professions, in order to further the knowledge and understanding of management principles. Discussion is what Fayol had in mind, when he presented his 14 principles . In Fayol’s own words: â€Å"Are they [the principles] to have a place in the management code which is to be built up? General discussion will show†. In the following I will discuss each of his principles under the aspect of a comparison with examples, historic or modern, and in relation to other theoreticians of management, in order to examine how Fayol’s principles hold up as â€Å"management code† today. Following are the fourteen principles of management developed by the Henry Fayol: Division Of Work The idea of division of work, or as Adam Smith called it â€Å"division of labour†, in 1776 probably goes back to the beginning of work itself. Fayol recognizes this in considering specialization as part of â€Å"the natural order† comparing it to the organs of the body . â€Å"The object of division of work is to produce more and better work with the same effort†, Fayol describes. This very objective has not been altered in today’s labor. In a sense this principle is the fundamental feature of modern economy, allowing for the largest increases of productivity. Peter F. Drucker informs us, that the 20th century has seen a rate of 3% productivity increase per year, hence productivity has risen 50 fold since the time of Frederick Taylor, who acted as a catalyst in the development of division of work . An example of this fact can come from early industrialization, namely the Ford motor company , where Taylor’s system of a scientific approach was applied. Taylor was interested in skill development by means of standardization and functional specialization . One worker would assemble the dashboard, another would assemble the wheels, and yet another would paint the exterior. The effects of this are well known and lead to Ford becoming not just the predominant car maker but also the inventor of the conveyer-belt production system- revolutionizing many industries. However, one could argue that extremes of division of work could lead to undesired effects. Division of labor can ultimately reduce productivity and increase costs to produce units. Several reasons as causes for reduction in productivity can be thought of. For example, productivity can suffer when workers become bored with the constant repetition of a task. Additionally, productivity can be affected when workers lose pride in their work because they are not producing an entire product they can identify as their own work. Douglas M. McGregor for instance cautions that â€Å"people, deprived of opportunities to satisfy at work the needs which are now important to them, behave†¦with indolence, passivity,†¦lack of responsibility,†¦unreasonable demands for economic benefits† . This circumstance was probably well recognized by Fayol, when he states that the â€Å"division of work has its limits which experience and a sense of proportion teach us may not be exceeded† According to Henry Fayol under division of work, â€Å"The worker always on the same post, the manager always concerned with the same matters, acquire an ability, sureness and accuracy which increases their output. In other words, division of work means specialization. According to this principle, a person is not capable of doing all types of work. Each job and work should be assigned to the specialist of his job. Division of work promotes efficiency because it permits an organizational member to work in a limited area reducing the scope of his responsibility. Fayol wanted the division of work not only at factory but at management levels also. 2. Authority and Responsibility Authority and responsibility go together or co-existing. Both authority and responsible are the two sides of a coin. In this way, if anybody is made responsible for any job, he should also have the concerned authority. Fayol’s principle of management in this regard is that an efficient manager makes best possible use of his authority and does not escape from the responsibility. In other awards when the authority is exercised the responsibility. In other awards when the authority is exercised the responsibility is automatically generated. The division of an enterprise into distinct departments, each independent of the others but subject to a common authority, has diverse causes such as the great growth of business, or a diversity of operations demanding very different capabilities or the physical separation of the various activities. Whatever the cause for which this division into departments exists, one must, under the penalty of duality of command, make sure that each service and each function is clearly defined and delimited. These departments, functions and powers, created arbitrarily, generally have no independent existence; one could always constitute them differently and they can be changed. But as soon as they have been instituted they must be defined and delimited very clearly. If not, certain parts will be neglected or forgotten while other parts will be handled by several authorities at once. Much vigilance is necessary to avoid these twin perils. The definition of departments and functions carries with it, naturally, the specifications of rights, duties and responsibilities for each. Each must know to whom and for what he gives orders, to whom and for what he must obey. On the other hand, each person in authority at every hierarchical level must always be familiar with what is going on in all areas under him. The means that can be used to carry out this responsibility are: direct supervision, control, meetings, reports and a good accounting system. 3. Discipline The Dictionary Larousse defines this as follows: â€Å"A group of unspoken rules or of written rules intended to ensure good order and regularity in a company or an assembly. ’’ This definition seems to me to be exact. Here we are not faced with the principle but an essential rule contingent or dependent on the goal, the constitution, the personalities and so on. These rules, which are as numerous as they are varied, have almost exclusively as their goal the achievement of Unity of Command and its corollaries. The rights, duties, responsibilities, and the place of each person must be determined and specified. Good rules greatly facilitate the progress of events. But whatever the value of these rules might be, their effectiveness and discipline itself will always depend on much tact, much skill and the conduct of the leaders. According to Henry Fayol discipline means sincerity about the work and enterprise, carrying out orders and instructions of superiors and to have faith in the policies and programmes of the business enterprise, in other sense, discipline in terms of obedience, application, energy and respect to superior. However, Fayol does not advocate warming, fines, suspension and dismissals of worker for maintaining discipline. These punishments are rarely awarded. A well disciplined working force is essential for improving the quality and quantity of the production. 4. Unity of Command As an enterprise grows, there comes a time when the leader can no longer provide personal direction to every employee: he therefore appoints intermediaries to transmit directives and to supervise their execution. As the enterprise grows even further, the leader cannot even direct these first level intermediaries and he is obliged to create others to transmit his directives to the first and thus a hierarchy is formed. Its origin is therefore independent of â€Å"Unity of Command’’: it results from a limitation of personal abilities. But the principles of â€Å"Unity of Command’’ requires that the Leader pass through these intermediaries to reach the lower-level employees; departure from these regular channels provokes duality. Such is the â€Å"Hierarchical transmission of orders’’ which is commonly known as the Hierarchical Principle. The results of ignoring this principle are ruffled feelings; discontent, discouragement and conflict, just like the result of ignoring the fundamental principle. Nevertheless, infractions are fairly frequent though sometimes caused by good intentions: for example, perhaps there is an agent at the third level who, finding that the normal channels are too long, gives orders directly to a first-level employee (X1), without passing through X2; meanwhile someone at the fourth level (X4) believing that he hasn’t been understood, or for some other reason, gives direct orders to X2, resulting in a duality of command and the inevitable consequences; discontent, confusion of responsibilities and the work is held up. In practice one constantly has to compromise respect for the hierarchical channel with the need for timely response. A subordinate should take order from only one boss and he should be responsible and accountable to him. Further he claimed that if the unit of command is violated, authority is undermined, disciplined in danger, order disturbed and stability threatened. The violation of this principle will face some serious consequences. In this way, the principle of unity of command provides the enterprise disciplined, stable and orderly existence. It creates harmonious relationship between officers and subordinates, congenial atmosphere of work. It is one of the Fayol’s important essential principle of management. 5. Unity of Direction Fayol summarizes this principle with the words: â€Å"one head and one plan for a group† . Hence, this point is naturally closely connected to the unity of command principle. Again Sloan and GM can serve as an example. Sloan introduced a wide variety of metrics in order to measure the performance of departments and the firms that were part of the GM concern. His attitude is ummarized in his words: â€Å"We have such control over this ship [the GM corporation] that we know exactly where we are at all times† . Or as Fayol said: â€Å"Unity of direction is provided for by sound organization of the body corporate†¦Ã¢â‚¬  . That means first one must know where to take the company and subsequently constantly assure that the plan is still on track. The success story of GM un der Sloan exemplifies the validity of this principleFayol advocates â€Å"One head and one plan† which means that group efforts on a particular plan be led and directed by a single person. This enables effective co-ordination of individual efforts and energy. This fulfils the principles of unity of command and brings uniformity in the work of same nature. In this way the principle of direction create dedication to purpose and loyalty. It emphasizes the attainment of common goal under one head. 6. Subordination of individual interests to general interests The interest of the business enterprise ought to come before the interests of the praise individual workers. In other words, principle of management state that employees should surrender their personnel interest before the general interest of the enterprise. Sometimes the employees due to this ignorance, selfishness, laziness, carelessness and emotional pleasure overlook the interest of the organisation. This attitude proves to be very harmful to the enterprise. An organization is much bigger than the individual it constitutes therefore interest of the undertaking should prevail in all circumstances. As far as possible, reconciliation should be achieved between individual and group interests. But in case of conflict, individual must sacrifice for bigger interests. In order to achieve this attitude, it is essential that – Employees should be honest & sincere. Proper & regular supervision of work. – Reconciliation of mutual differences and clashes by mutual agreement. For example, for change of location of plant, for change of profit sharing ratio, etc. 7. Fair Remuneration to employees According to Fayol wage-rates and method of their payment should be fair, proper and satisfactory. Both employees and ex-employers sh ould agree to it. Logical and appropriate wage-rate and methods of their payment reduces tension and differences between workers and management, create harmonious relationship and a pleasing atmosphere of work. Further Fayol recommends that residential facilities be provided including arrangement of electricity, water and facilities. 8. Centralization and Decentralization The command exercised by the higher authority and which, be it direct or through successive levels in the organization, reaches all parts of the organization, and the responses which return in the reverse sense, either directly or through the levels, to the central authority, constitute what one has rightly called â€Å"Centralization. ’’ It is not an arbitrary institution nor is it optional. It is an inevitable consequence, enforced, in fact, by Unity of Command. Centralization can be practiced in greatly different ways: the field can be left open for individual initiative, or it can be completely stifled. One finds examples ranging from a rigid structure with only passive obedience, to a vibrant organism where freedom of action spreads out with the most perfect subordination. One leader, having great ability and a great influence can, without inconveniencing a small business, handle all matters, make his own decisions and impose a passive obedience: as the enterprise grows, such a leader will become inadequate and his method will be deplored. Another leader will give a lot of authority to his subordinates, but what happens if these subordinates are only mediocre? It is therefore a matter of degree: one must consider the importance of various circumstances, the special difficulties which they cause, their extent, the distance which separates the various parts of the business and so on: one must also take account of the value of the employees. Only consideration of the circumstances can decide the respective balance between power and initiative, which it may be convenient to give to all employees. At the same time, it seems certain to me, the matter of subordinating being separate, that one must give all employees the largest amount of freedom of action and initiative possible. The strength of the leaders is augmented through the strength brought by lower-level employees and therefore they must be developed to the maximum extent possible. Let us not forget, in passing, that personal satisfaction and self-respect are often stronger than self-interest when it comes to stimulating individual initiative. The great problem of centralization and decentralization can therefore be summarized s follows: compulsory centralization with the greatest possible individual initiative. As for the amount of authority and initiative to be given to each person, each case must be considered separately, it is the eternal question of degree, which is the great and continuing preoccupation of the administrator. Whether one buys or sells, builds or demolishes, recruits or dismisses, punishes or reward s, in a word acts or refrains from action, the line to follow is never clearly defined: one must select from various alternatives. Neither principles nor rules can abolish arbitrary decisions. There should be one central point in the organisation which exercises overall direction and control of all the parts. But the degree of centralization of authority should vary according to the needs of situation. According to Fayol there should be centralization in small units and proper decentralization in big organisation. Further, Fayol does not favor centralization or decentralization of authorities but suggests that these should be proper and effective adjustment between centralization and decentralization in order to achieve maximum objectives of the business. The choice between centralization and decentralization be made after taking into consideration the nature of work and the efficiency, experience and decision-making capacity of the executives. 9. Scalar Chain The scalar chain is a chain of supervisors from the highest to the lowest rank. It should be short-circuited. An employee should feel the necessity to contact his superior through the scalar chain. The authority and responsibility is communicated through this scalar chain. Fayol defines scalar chain as â€Å"the chain of superiors ranging from the ultimate authority to the lowest rank. The flow of information between management and workers is a must. Business opportunities must be immediately avoided of. so we must make direct contact with the concerned employee. Business problems need immediate solution, so we cannot always depend on the established scalar chain. It requires that direct contact should be established. Every orders, instructions, messages, requests, explanation etc. has to pass through Scalar chain. But, for the sake of convenience & urgency, this path can be cut shirt and this short cut is known as Gang Plank. A Gang Plank is a temporary arrangement between two different In the figure given, if D has to communicate with G he will first send the communication upwards with the help of C, B to A and then downwards with the help of E and F to G which will take quite some time and by that time, it may not be worth therefore a gang plank has been developed between the two. Gang Plank clarifies that management principles are not rigid rather they are very flexible. They can be moulded and modified as per the requirements of situations 10. Order: According to Fayol there should be proper, systematic and orderly arrangement of physical and social factors, such as land, raw materials, tools and equipments and employees respectively. As per view, there should be safe, appropriate and specific place for every article and every place to be used effectively for a particular activity and commodity. In other words, principles that every piece of land and every article should be used properly, economically and in the best possible way. Selection and appointment of the most suitable person to every job. There should be specific place for every one and every one should have specific place. This principle also stresses scientific selection and appointment of employees on every job. One knows the formula for material order:â€Å"a place for everything and everything in its place. ’’ At the same time should there not be a specified place for everything and someone designated to put everything in that place? Unity of Command indirectly deals with this matter by imposing delimitation of departments and of the authorities, which are responsible for them. Every act of the enterprise and everything belonging to it must have its respondent, that is to say, someone who is responsible for it. It is order in deeds and with things: it is the means of avoiding waste of material and time and for avoiding conflicts. Thus, Unity of Command appears with its retinue of secondary principles as an important and fundamental natural law, and this impression is only strengthened as one studies the point further. No one denies its importance; many people are vaguely aware of it but its value is only really appreciated by a few and if one considers that as with every good rule of housekeeping it gets in the way of imaginative solutions, one can explain why it is violated so often. Numerous infractions occur, such as orders which arrive at their destination without having followed the hierarchical route, such as the encroachment by one department upon another, such as the stopping or disarray of the administrative mechanism due to the absence of the leader, and so on. At least five times out of ten it is errors of this type, which upset the business. 11. Equity â€Å"Equity and equality of treatment are aspirations to be taken into account in dealing with employees†, Fayol says. Clearly, this standard is not easily achieved, however, today’s work environment is arguably more equipped to tackle this issue than previous generations of corporations. One indication for this claim is to be found in the fact that most companies have appointed officials who deal with complaints of employees against the management, for instance the so-called ombudsman . However, this system is naturally not fool proof and private organizations attempt to draw attention to the victims of mistreatment. One example is an organization taking care of claims of victims of mobbing within the company Novartis . While the problem still persists, Fayol’s principle is being recognized by corporations and enhanced by the public opinion and most importantly the lawmakers . Several nations, e. g. Germany, Sweden and others, intend to tackle the problem of unequal treatment by passing laws that intend to establish a juridical basis for people who fell victim of inequality. The principle of equality should be followed and applicable at every level of management. There should not be any discrimination as regards caste, sex and religion. An effective management always accords sympathetic and human treatment. The management should be kind, honest and impartial with the employees. In other words, kindness and justice should be exercised by management in dealing with their subordinates. This will create loyalty and devotion among the employees. Thus, workers should be treated at par at every level. Equity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice. The employees should be treated with kindness & equity if devotion is expected of them. It implies that managers should be fair and impartial while dealing with the subordinates. They should give similar treatment to people of similar position. They should not discriminate with respect to age, caste, sex, religion, relation etc. Equity is essential to create and maintain cordial relations between the managers and sub-ordinate. But equity does not mean total absence of harshness. Fayol was of opinion that, â€Å"at times force and harshness might become necessary for the sake of equity†. 12. Stability of use of personnel It is Fayol’s opinion that it is better to have a â€Å"mediocre manager who stays† than â€Å"outstanding mangers who merely come and go† . Fayol does not only apply this idea to management though, he also points to negative effects of a lack of stability when it comes to employees. While this point might be debatable to some extend it is clear that stability contributes to better planning possibilities. It also allows for a psychologically beneficial state of mind of the employees, hence certainly improving efficiency and the willingness to perform well for the corporation’s good. Apparently however, this rule of requirement has not sunken in generally. This is demonstrated by the fact that most countries have passed employee protection regulations when it comes to the reasons why people can be laid off. Internationally the International Labor Organization, a section of the United Nations, watches over various aspects of employment and also deals with unfair dismissals of employees . While from an employee perspective the protection laws make sense, employers may occasionally view this issue differently. In fact, it is easy to find web-blogs with advice how to fire workers without ensuing lawsuit and some influential individuals, for instance Chandrajit Banerjee, head of the Confederation of the Indian Industry , demands it to become easier to hire and fire in India . Maybe a way out of this dilemma and back to following Fayol’s principle can derive from an example Henry Chesbrough gave when discussing differences in culture between the USA and Japan . Chesbrough describes how little loyalty US-employees exhibit compared to the Japanese counterparts. He also analyses the reason as stemming from the fact that Japanese firms have a tighter relation to their employees. He for example points to a better social security system, like pension plans, in Japan. The spill-over effect that endangers US American companies to loose important innovative advantages by losing skilled employees to other companies is thereby contained in Japan. This example shows that stability of tenure is not only important but connected to social and cultural factors management must take into account if they want to maximize their productive capacity. It also shows, that this principle is a two-way street. While stability is important for the employee it is just as important for the employer. One would think that this leads to both parties pulling in the same direction. But as we can see from the above example, it requires a change of mind in some instances to establish an environment of trust and mutual care. Principle of stability is linked with long tenure of personnel in the organisation. This means production being a team work, an efficient management always builds a team of good workers. If the members of the team go on changing the entire process of production will be disturbed. It is always in the interest of the enterprise that its trusted, experienced and trained employees do not leave the organisation. Stability of job creates a sense of belongingness among workers who with this feeling are encouraged to improve the quality and quantity of work. Fayol emphasized that employees should not be moved frequently from one job position to another i. e. the period of service in a job should be fixed. Therefore employees should be appointed after keeping in view principles of recruitment & selection but once they are appointed their services should be served. According to Fayol. Time is required for an employee to get used to a new work & succeed to doing it well but if he is removed before that he will not be able to render worthwhile services†. As a result, the time, effort and money spent on training the worker will go waste. Stability of job creates team spirit and a sense of belongingness among workers which ultimately increase the quality as w ell as quantity of work. 13. Initiative Fayol summarizes the need for employees to show initiative in the saying, that â€Å"the initiative of all, added to that of the manager†¦represents a great source of strength for businesses† . He suggests to management to â€Å"inspire and maintain everyone’s initiative†. Some modernly run companies have come to find their special ways in order to ensure employee satisfaction, and, concomitantly their initiative. One example is again Google and their policy of â€Å"20% time† . This policy implies that employees get a large part of their time to invest in projects of their choosing. While these projects are not necessarily connected to their immediate work tasks experience has shown, that they often built the basis for spin-off ideas that benefit the firm. Others, like 3M and various Biotech and Pharmaceutical companies have followed suit, and it is said that 3M has developed the post-it notes as a spin-off of an idea conceived during a personal project period . As a Google employee put it: â€Å"the 20 percent policy is as important to attracting and retaining employees as it is to sparking fresh ideas†. Business professor Robert Fulmer at Pepperdine University adds: â€Å"Paradoxically, letting go of employees through independent projects can mean getting more from them. It’s a way to get people to go beyond what’s expected of them†. Apparently, with the right strategies a company can increase employee participation and initiative by given the â€Å"inspiration† Fayol requested from the management. Workers should be encouraged to take initiative in the work assigned to them. It means eagerness to initiate actions without being asked to do so. Fayol advised that management should provide opportunity to its employees to suggest ideas, experiences& new method of work. It helps in developing an atmosphere of trust and understanding. People then enjoy working in the organization because it adds to their zeal and energy. To suggest improvement in formulation & implementation of place. They can be encouraged with the help of monetary & non-monetary incentives. Under this principle, the successful management provides an opportunity to its employees to suggest their new ideas, experiences and more convenient methods of work. The employees, who has been working on the specific job since long discover now, better alternative approach and technique of work. It will be more useful, if initiative to do so is provided to employees. In simple, to ensure success, plans should be well formulated before they are implemented. 14. Espirit De’ Corps (can be achieved through unity of command) It refers to team spirit i. e. harmony in the work groups and mutual understanding among the members. Spirit De’ Corps inspires workers to work harder. Fayol cautioned the managers against dividing the employees into competing groups because it might damage the moral of the workers and interest of the undertaking in the long run. To inculcate Espirit De’ Corps following steps should be undertaken – There should be proper co-ordination of work at all levels Subordinates should be encouraged to develop informal relations among themselves. Efforts should be made to create enthusiasm and keenness among subordinates so that they can work to the maximum ability. Efficient employees should be rewarded and those who are not up to the mark should be given a chance to improve their performance. Subordinates should be made conscious of that whatever they are doing is of great importance to the business & society. He also cautioned against the more use of Britain communication to the subordinates i. e. face to face communication should be developed. The managers should infuse team spirit & belongingness. There should be no place for misunderstanding. People then enjoy working in the organization & offer their best towards the organization. In order to achieve the best possible results, individual and group effort are to be effectively integrated and coordinated. Production is a team work for which the whole-hearted support and co-operation of the members at all levels is required. Everyone should sacrifice his personal interest and contribute his best energies to achieve the best results. it refers to the spirit of loyalty, faithfulness on the part of the members of the group which can be achieved by strong motivating recognition and importance of the members for their valuable contribution, effective coordination, informal mutual social relationship between members of the group and positive and constructive approach of the management towards workers’ welfare SEMINAR 3 MANAGEMENT LEVELS Managers are organizational members who are responsible for the work performance of other organizational members. Managers have formal authority to use organizational resources and to make decisions. In organizations, there are typically three levels of management: top-level, middle-level, and first-level. These three main levels of managers form a hierarchy, in which they are ranked in order of importance. In most organizations, the number of managers at each level is such that the hierarchy resembles a pyramid, with many more first-level managers, fewer middle managers, and the fewest managers at the top level. Each of these management levels is described below in terms of their possible job titles and their primary responsibilities and the paths taken to hold these positions. Additionally, there are differences across the management levels as to what types of management tasks each does and the roles that they take in their jobs. Finally, there are a number of changes that are occurring in many organizations that are changing the management hierarchies in them, such as the increasing use of teams, the prevalence of outsourcing, and the flattening of organizational structures. Top-Level Managers Top-level managers, or top managers, are also called senior management or executives. These individuals are at the top one or two levels in an organization, and hold titles such as: Chief Executive Officer (CEO), Chief Financial Officer (CFO), Chief Operational Officer (COO), Chief Information Officer (CIO), Chairperson of the Board, President, Vice president, Corporate head. Often, a set of these managers will constitute the top management team, which is composed of the CEO, the COO, and other department heads. Top-level managers make decisions affecting the entirety of the firm. Top managers do not direct the day-to-day activities of the firm; rather, they set goals for the organization and direct the company to achieve them. Top managers are ultimately responsible for the performance of the organization, and often, these managers have very visible jobs. Top managers in most organizations have a great deal of managerial experience and have moved up through the ranks of management within the company or in another firm. An exception to this is a top manager who is also an entrepreneur; such an individual may start a small company and manage it until it grows enough to support several levels of management. Many top managers possess an advanced degree, such as a Masters in Business Administration, but such a degree is not required. Some CEOs are hired in from other top management positions in other companies. Conversely, they may be promoted from within and groomed for top management with management development activities, coaching, and mentoring. They may be tagged for promotion through succession planning, which identifies high potential managers. Middle-Level Managers Middle-level managers, or middle managers, are those in the levels below top managers. Middle managers’ job titles include: General manager, Plant manager, Regional manager, and Divisional manager. Middle-level managers are responsible for carrying out the goals set by top management. They do so by setting goals for their departments and other business units. Middle managers can motivate and assist first-line managers to achieve business objectives. Middle managers may also communicate upward, by offering suggestions and feedback to top managers. Because middle managers are more involved in the day-to-day workings of a company, they may provide valuable information to top managers to help improve the organization’s bottom line. Jobs in middle management vary widely in terms of responsibility and salary. Depending on the size of the company and the number of middle-level managers in the firm, middle managers may supervise only a small group of employees, or they may manage very large groups, such as an entire business location. Middle managers may be employees who were promoted from first-level manager positions within the organization, or they may have been hired from outside the firm. Some middle managers may have aspirations to hold positions in top management in the future. First-Level Managers First-level managers are also called first-line managers or supervisors. These managers have job titles such as: Office manager, Shift supervisor, Department manager, Foreperson, Crew leader, Store manager. First-line managers are responsible for the daily management of line workershe employees who actually produce the product or offer the service. There are first-line managers in every work unit in the organization. Although first-level managers typically do not set goals for the organization, they have a very strong influence on the company. These are the managers that most employees interact with on a daily basis, and if the managers perform poorly, employees may also perform poorly, may lack motivation, or may leave the company. In the past, most first-line managers were employees who were promoted from line positions (such as production or clerical jobs). Rarely did these employees have formal education beyond the high school level. However, many first-line managers are now graduates of a trade school, or have a two-year associates or a four-year bachelor’s degree from college. Management Levels And The Four Managerial Functions Managers at different levels of the organization engage in different amounts of time on the four managerial functions of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling. Planning is choosing appropriate organizational goals and the correct directions to achieve those goals. Organizing involves determining the tasks and the relationships that allow employees to work together to achieve the planned goals. With leading, managers motivate and coordinate employees to work together to achieve organizational goals. When controlling, managers monitor and measure the degree to which the organization has reached its goals. The degree to which top, middle, and supervisory managers perform each of these functions is presented in Exhibit 1. Note that top managers do considerably more planning, organizing, and controlling than do managers at any other level. However, they do much less leading. Most of the leading is done by first-line managers. The amount of planning, organizing, and controlling decreases down the hierarchy of management; leading increases as you move down the hierarchy of management. Time Spent on Management Functions at Different Management Levels   Several defining characteristics demarcate management skills and differentiate them from other kinds of managerial characteristics and practices. First, management skills are behavioral. They are not personality attributes or stylistic tendencies. Management skills consist of identifiable sets of actions that individuals perform and that lead to certain outcomes. Skills can be observed by others, unlike attributes that are purely mental or are embedded in personality. Whereas people with different styles and personalities may apply the skills differently, there are, nevertheless, a core set of observable attributes in effective skill performance that are common across a range of individual differences. Second, management skills are controllable. The performance of these behaviors is under the control of the individual. Unlike organizational practices such as â€Å"selectively hiring,† or cognitive activities such as â€Å"transcending fear,† skills can be consciously demonstrated, practiced, improved, or restrained by individuals themselves. Skills may certainly engage other people and require cognitive work, but they are behaviors that people can control themselves. Third, management skills are developable. Performance can improve. Unlike IQ or certain personality or temperament attributes that remain relatively constant throughout life, individuals can improvement their competency in skill performance through practice and feedback. Individuals can progress from less competence to more competence in management skills, and that outcome is the primary objective of this book. Fourth, management skills are interrelated and overlapping. It is difficult to demonstrate just one skill in isolation from others. Skills are not simplistic, repetitive behaviors, but they are integrated sets of complex responses. Effective managers, in particular, must rely on combinations of skills to achieve desired results. For example, in order to effectively motivate others, skills such as supportive communication, influence, empowerment, and self-awareness may be required. Effective managers, in other words, develop a constellation of skills that overlap and support one another and that allow flexibility in managing diverse situations. Fifth, management skills are sometimes contradictory or paradoxical. For example, the core management skills are neither all soft and humanistic in orientation nor all hard-driving and directive. They are oriented neither toward teamwork and interpersonal relations exclusively nor toward individualism and technical entrepreneurship exclusively. A variety of skills are typical of the most effective managers, and some of them appear incompatible. Regardless of organizational level, all managers must have five critical skills: technical skill, interpersonal skill, conceptual skill, diagnostic skill, and political skill. Technical Skill. Technical skill involves understanding and demonstrating proficiency in a particular workplace activity. Technical skills are things such as using a computer word processing program, creating a budget, operating a piece of machinery, or preparing a presentation. The technical skills used will differ in each level of management. First-level managers may engage in the actual operations of the organization; they need to have an understanding of how production and service occur in the organization in order to direct and evaluate line employees. Additionally, first-line managers need skill in scheduling workers and preparing budgets. Middle managers use more technical skills related to planning and organizing, and top managers need to have skill to understand the complex financial workings of the organization. Interpersonal Skill. Interpersonal skill involves human relations, or the manager’s ability to interact effectively with organizational members. Communication is a critical part of interpersonal skill, and an inability to communicate effectively can prevent career progression for managers. Managers who have excellent technical skill, but poor interpersonal skill are unlikely to succeed in their jobs. This skill is critical at all levels of management. Conceptual Skill. Conceptual skill is a manager’s ability to see the organization as a whole, as a complete entity. It involves understanding how organizational units work together and how the organization fits into its competitive environment. Conceptual skill is crucial for top managers, whose ability to see â€Å"the big picture† can have major repercussions on the success of the business. However, conceptual skill is still necessary for middle and supervisory managers, who must use this skill to envision, for example, how work units and teams are best organized. Diagnostic Skill. Diagnostic skill is used to investigate problems, decide on a remedy, and implement a solution. Diagnostic skill involves other skillsechnical, interpersonal, conceptual, and politic. For instance, to determine the root of a problem, a manager may need to speak with many organizational members or understand a variety of informational documents. The difference in the use of diagnostic skill acr0oss the three levels of management is primarily due to the types of problems that must be addressed at each level. For example, first-level managers may deal primarily with issues of motivation and discipline, such as determining why a particular employee’s performance is flagging and how to improve it. Middle managers are likely to deal with issues related to larger work units, such as a plant or sales office. For instance, a middle-level manager may have to diagnose why sales in a retail location have dipped. Top managers diagnose organization-wide problems, and may address issues such as strategic position, the possibility of outsourcing tasks, or opportunities for overseas expansion of a business. Political Skill. Political skill involves obtaining power and preventing other employees from taking away one’s power. Managers use power to achieve organizational objectives, and this skill can often reach goals with less effort than others who lack political skill. Much like the other skills described, political skill cannot stand alone as a manager’s skill; in particular, though, using political skill without appropriate levels of other skills can lead to promoting a manager’s own career rather than reaching organizational goals. Managers at all levels require political skill; managers must avoid others taking control that they should have in their work positions. Top managers may find that they need higher levels of political skill in order to successfully operate in their environments. CONCLUSION * Management has been identified as the systematic body of knowledge based on general principles,concepts,theories and techniques which are variable in terms of business practice. These are embodied in the managerial functions of planning,organising,planning,controlling and directing which form the job of a manager. * In the organisation there are 3 levels called top level,middle level and lower level management ,each one having important role in smooth running of the organisation. * The lack of management skills will lead to poor decision making.